How to play pretend games with a child. (2012). In EHow. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.ehow.com/how_2093416_play-pretend-games-child.html
Tuesday, 31 July 2012
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION...
PLEASE NOTE: Posts that are titled "Additional Information" are not necessary to read during the conference presentation. It is there for extra information if you so desire. If you prefer you can refer to the ‘Blog Archive’ to the right of the page and click onto posts that AREN’T titled ‘additional information’.
How to play pretend games with a child. (2012). In EHow. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.ehow.com/how_2093416_play-pretend-games-child.html
How to play pretend games with a child. (2012). In EHow. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.ehow.com/how_2093416_play-pretend-games-child.html
Advantages and disadvantages of structured and unstructured play:
Advantages of structured play:
‘Free play and structured play’ (n.d., p.1), commented that advantages could include "cooperative play, sportsmanship, teamwork, strategy and following directions". Morris (2005, p.1), extended on this stating "structured play offers several benefits including: Introducing your child to new ideas and opportunities, enhancing their development and learning abilities, supporting healthy brain development, increasing physical and social skills, providing experience in cooperation, self-discipline and perseverance, developing a positive self-image and building team skills".
Disadvantages of structured play:
Disadvantages can be less time/opportunity for unstructured play (thus preventing the benefits of unstructured play) and causing increased stress. Titus (n.d., p.2) noted that "over scheduling structured play often leads to a child developing stress and anxiety, as well as depression on occasion, according to the APP" (American Academy of Pediatrics). Titus continued to comment that "children with busy structured play schedules may fall behind at school, complain of headaches or stomach aches and feel tired frequently...in addition; families who feel children must be involved in many activities often feel the stress and exhaustion of keeping up with the structured schedule" (n.d., p.2).
Advantages of unstructured play:
According to ‘free play and structured play’ (n.d., p.1) it noted self-regulation, conflict negotiation, problem solving, social-emotional growth, persistence, resilience and collaboration as possible advantages. Titus (n.d., p.2) named the "benefits of unstructured play such as creativity, imagination, decision-making and the development of overall emotional, cognitive and physical strength". Tassoni (2007, p.390) comments that "children tend to concentrate and persevere for long periods when they are ‘in control’ of their learning. Their levels of motivation are higher because they have chosen something that appeals to them".
Disadvantages of unstructured play:
Although there wasn’t much information on the disadvantages of unstructured play, this type of play is about exploration and with exploration comes risk taking. Exposure to more risk and risk taking can expose a child to the result of positive and negatives consequences. Generally if the risk results in a negative consequence then the child will lack the confidence to take the risk again, whilst the parent would limit the child from having the same opportunity out of safety. It could also be noted that if a child is exposed to too much unstructured play that it can be hard for them to adjust to activities that require more structure or following of direction.
‘Free play and structured play’ (n.d., p.1), commented that advantages could include "cooperative play, sportsmanship, teamwork, strategy and following directions". Morris (2005, p.1), extended on this stating "structured play offers several benefits including: Introducing your child to new ideas and opportunities, enhancing their development and learning abilities, supporting healthy brain development, increasing physical and social skills, providing experience in cooperation, self-discipline and perseverance, developing a positive self-image and building team skills".
Disadvantages of structured play:
Disadvantages can be less time/opportunity for unstructured play (thus preventing the benefits of unstructured play) and causing increased stress. Titus (n.d., p.2) noted that "over scheduling structured play often leads to a child developing stress and anxiety, as well as depression on occasion, according to the APP" (American Academy of Pediatrics). Titus continued to comment that "children with busy structured play schedules may fall behind at school, complain of headaches or stomach aches and feel tired frequently...in addition; families who feel children must be involved in many activities often feel the stress and exhaustion of keeping up with the structured schedule" (n.d., p.2).
Advantages of unstructured play:
According to ‘free play and structured play’ (n.d., p.1) it noted self-regulation, conflict negotiation, problem solving, social-emotional growth, persistence, resilience and collaboration as possible advantages. Titus (n.d., p.2) named the "benefits of unstructured play such as creativity, imagination, decision-making and the development of overall emotional, cognitive and physical strength". Tassoni (2007, p.390) comments that "children tend to concentrate and persevere for long periods when they are ‘in control’ of their learning. Their levels of motivation are higher because they have chosen something that appeals to them".
Disadvantages of unstructured play:
Although there wasn’t much information on the disadvantages of unstructured play, this type of play is about exploration and with exploration comes risk taking. Exposure to more risk and risk taking can expose a child to the result of positive and negatives consequences. Generally if the risk results in a negative consequence then the child will lack the confidence to take the risk again, whilst the parent would limit the child from having the same opportunity out of safety. It could also be noted that if a child is exposed to too much unstructured play that it can be hard for them to adjust to activities that require more structure or following of direction.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION...
The Basics Defined:
What is Play?
"Play: Occupations selected for amusement, recreation, diversion, sport, or folic" (Christiansen, & Townsend, 2010, p.422).
According to Hughes (2010), play is considered to have five essential characteristics; Firstly it must be intrinsically motivated, secondly it must be freely chosen, thirdly it must be pleasurable, fourthly that it is nonliteral and finally that the player is actively engaged.
What is structured and unstructured play?
Structured play: is a type of play that is goal/objective based and generally has a structure as to how it should be carried out. Unstructured play can also be termed as ‘adult-directed’ with the increase of adults involvement in children’s play.
Unstructured play: this is a type of play that is unplanned and thus the reason why it can also be termed ‘spontaneous play’ or ‘free play’.‘Child initiated play’ is also another term used, noting that this type play can develop structure but only by the child/children who initiated it.
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured and structured play:
(Tassoni, 2006, p.375)
What is Play?
"Play: Occupations selected for amusement, recreation, diversion, sport, or folic" (Christiansen, & Townsend, 2010, p.422).
According to Hughes (2010), play is considered to have five essential characteristics; Firstly it must be intrinsically motivated, secondly it must be freely chosen, thirdly it must be pleasurable, fourthly that it is nonliteral and finally that the player is actively engaged.
What is structured and unstructured play?
Structured play: is a type of play that is goal/objective based and generally has a structure as to how it should be carried out. Unstructured play can also be termed as ‘adult-directed’ with the increase of adults involvement in children’s play.
Unstructured play: this is a type of play that is unplanned and thus the reason why it can also be termed ‘spontaneous play’ or ‘free play’.‘Child initiated play’ is also another term used, noting that this type play can develop structure but only by the child/children who initiated it.
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured and structured play:
Common themes explored
"Over the past half century or so, in the United States and in other developed nations, opportunities for children to play, especially to play outdoors with over children, have continually declined. Over this same period, measures of psychopathology in children and adolescents-including indices of anxiety, depression, feelings of helplessness, and narcissism-have continually increased" (Gray, 2011, p. 443).
To really understand the above statement you need to look historically as to why a decline in play (both structured and unstructured play) in general has occurred. Reviewing western countries specifically; historically children had little opportunity and free time to play. Most children spent large portions of their day working (e.g. farming, domestic, factory work during the industrial revolution), so therefore when there was opportunity to engage in unstructured/free play this was taken full advantage of and highly valued. 1900’s to 1950’s was considered by Howard Chudaoff as "the golden age of unstructured play", as child labour declined and an increased development of positive attitudes and spaces for children to engage in unstructured play (e.g. parks), (Gray, 2011).
Gray (2011, p.444) states "that since 1955, however, children’s free play has been continually declining, at least partly because adults have exerted ever-increasing control over children’s activities outside of the world of labour". Studies have shown that children generally have less free time and play less, especially outdoors. Technology has placed an influence on unstructured/free play as well, with increasing time spent watching television, computer games and internet. Although this has encouraged much indoor play, most children enjoy playing outside still however their parents restrict this, thus also no other children to play with.
"Parents today have more fears about allowing their children to play outdoors than parents in decades past, and media coverage certainly plays a role in these fears. Today, if a stranger abducts, molests, or murders a child anywhere in the developed world, the crime receives extensive and repeated news coverage. In truth, the rate of such cases is small and has declined, at least since the early 1990s in the United States. Parents, however, believe otherwise" (Gray, 2011, p. 446-447).
In truth we are now more aware than ever of what is going on in the world, it doesn’t necessarily mean that we are in a more dangerous and unsafe society. Part of this is influenced by the change of the times and technology. We now live in a world where everyone has the right to an opinion and to speak it, being a more outspoken society. Whereas technology has made news more accessible. It is understandable that parents feel the need for there children to be constantly monitored and to ensure their safety, however this restricts the child/children experiencing more play opportunities important for their development.
In childhood Boekhoven (2009, p.4) considered play "as the primary mechanism by which young children learn about themselves, their environment and their place in the world…Unstructured play provides a spontaneous and informal venue for recreation, socialization and learning, which changes over the course of childhood and adolescence".
In childhood the parent is seen as a facilitator or a shaper for their child’s play. It is important that children receive as much opportunity and resources as part of their development, most of which, only can the parent provide. So therefore any type of play is considered good as long as it is contributing to their development as a child (whether it is structured or unstructured play). Many psychologists have developed theories that emphasized the importance of play to a child’s development.
"Developmental psychologists have described an identifiable sequence of play types from birth onwards, through which children learn by acquiring information and building competence. As outlined by Fernie…the process begins with what Piaget (1962) termed sensorimotor play, a mechanism for exploration of the physical self and the environment. Pretend play…enables children to experiment with symbolic representation and to explore social roles and relationships. These new abilities are internalized and used to gain further knowledge and skills. Through play, children learn about the physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social and moral domains of their world…As children mature, play becomes more organized to include rules and negotiation…As a result, children also learn about themselves and how to relate to other people, preparing them for independent life" (Boekhoven, 2009, p.4).
Boekhoven (2009, p.1), commented that in regard to adolescence "unstructured activities and time are more likely to be characterised by adults as a threat to adolescent health and well-being and as an antecedent of risk behaviours...At a time when young people are seeking opportunities to assert their independence, parents may seek to further organise their children’s free time as a way to protect them from negative influences and relationships". It is natural that as an adolescent part of finding your independence is through exploration and risk taking. If a parent isn’t allowing some room for them to do this then it can provide a reason to rebel and engage risky and potentially harmful behaviours e.g. trying drugs, smoking and alcohol. Even if they don’t rebel against their parents, they could conform to their parents wishes however it can take a negative toll on them mentally (e.g. unhappiness, stress, never taking the role of a leader).
It is important to let your adolescent have the room to explore on there own and make sure you are approachable so they can come to you for advice. Risk taking is part of life and a learnt experience is better than no experience. It important to let the adolescent take risks while you are still there to guide them. Boekhoven (2009, p.9) noted that "as parents face their children’s growing independence, research suggests that there is a need to take a hand in facilitating their child’s healthy lifestyle, appropriate social behaviour and engagement on the one hand, while stepping back to promote and support their child’s emerging self-reliance on the other…Herein lies the tension".
Some adolescents will require more support than others, some parents still needing to provide structured play (extra curricular activities), while others will need a chance to explore on their own (unstructured play). Boredom/unoccupied time is a key for concern during adolescence, again whilst some handle this well others don’t; especially in low socioeconomic areas.
"As children mature towards and through adolescence however, physical play activity as an element of recreational time typically declines…This shift holds the potential for unstructured time to become unoccupied time, or time in which risk behaviours can become an attractive option, without exposure to the beneficial effects that organized activities afford…these risks should not detract from the importance of providing children and youth with the opportunities to learn and explore that unstructured time affords" (Boekhoven, 2009, p.4).
Parental influences aren’t the only influences that have had an effect on how children play and what types of play they engage in. Changes in schooling promotes more time spent in the classroom learning, shorter breaks and time for play, as well as homework and involvement in extra circular activities (structured play). Gray (2011, p.447) supports this by stating a "decline in children’s play relates to increased time and weight given to schooling and to other adult-directed, school-like activities…Children now spend more time at school, and at school they spend less time playing, then was true in past times…The lengths of the school year and school day have increased; more young children attended academically oriented kindergartens and preschools than in times past; and recess time has shrunk and, in some school districts, disappeared completely".
Boekhoven comments on the decline in physical play and that "the underlying reasons for this transition centre around the increasing importance of peer relationships, so that social interaction becomes more concentrated on talk and shared confidences than on physical activity and play" (2009, p.8).
It is commonly noted that relationships become very important in adolescence and what was considered play (structured and unstructured) and now ‘recreational time’, a lot of which is spent and determined by peers. Technology has also had an influence on this are we are considered to be more connected than ever with the opportunities that technology provides.
"Adolescents appear to co-opt their use of internet communications to facilitate their need to talk and share experiences, possibly as a refuge from other aspects of their increasingly scheduled lives…the creation of a public persona may be one of the most compelling attractions for teens, in that they can test out nuances to their emerging sense of identity…Social network sites offer an alternative venue in which to communicate with friends and discuss daily hassles, away from parental observation and supervision that so often accompanies organized activities"(Boekhoven, 2009, p. 13).
Although technology has its benefits it also has its disadvantages, creating a new way of causing harm; for example cyber and text bullying, fraud, and predators. This poses a problem as parents need to allow their adolescent to have independence however also are generally responsible for protecting their adolescent from any harm technology can cause.
Fulwider, S., & Stevens, M. (2011, May 5). Physics of sports. In Exploring science wiki. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://exploringsciencewiki.wikidot.com/physics-of-sports
To really understand the above statement you need to look historically as to why a decline in play (both structured and unstructured play) in general has occurred. Reviewing western countries specifically; historically children had little opportunity and free time to play. Most children spent large portions of their day working (e.g. farming, domestic, factory work during the industrial revolution), so therefore when there was opportunity to engage in unstructured/free play this was taken full advantage of and highly valued. 1900’s to 1950’s was considered by Howard Chudaoff as "the golden age of unstructured play", as child labour declined and an increased development of positive attitudes and spaces for children to engage in unstructured play (e.g. parks), (Gray, 2011).
Gray (2011, p.444) states "that since 1955, however, children’s free play has been continually declining, at least partly because adults have exerted ever-increasing control over children’s activities outside of the world of labour". Studies have shown that children generally have less free time and play less, especially outdoors. Technology has placed an influence on unstructured/free play as well, with increasing time spent watching television, computer games and internet. Although this has encouraged much indoor play, most children enjoy playing outside still however their parents restrict this, thus also no other children to play with.
"Parents today have more fears about allowing their children to play outdoors than parents in decades past, and media coverage certainly plays a role in these fears. Today, if a stranger abducts, molests, or murders a child anywhere in the developed world, the crime receives extensive and repeated news coverage. In truth, the rate of such cases is small and has declined, at least since the early 1990s in the United States. Parents, however, believe otherwise" (Gray, 2011, p. 446-447).
In truth we are now more aware than ever of what is going on in the world, it doesn’t necessarily mean that we are in a more dangerous and unsafe society. Part of this is influenced by the change of the times and technology. We now live in a world where everyone has the right to an opinion and to speak it, being a more outspoken society. Whereas technology has made news more accessible. It is understandable that parents feel the need for there children to be constantly monitored and to ensure their safety, however this restricts the child/children experiencing more play opportunities important for their development.
In childhood Boekhoven (2009, p.4) considered play "as the primary mechanism by which young children learn about themselves, their environment and their place in the world…Unstructured play provides a spontaneous and informal venue for recreation, socialization and learning, which changes over the course of childhood and adolescence".
In childhood the parent is seen as a facilitator or a shaper for their child’s play. It is important that children receive as much opportunity and resources as part of their development, most of which, only can the parent provide. So therefore any type of play is considered good as long as it is contributing to their development as a child (whether it is structured or unstructured play). Many psychologists have developed theories that emphasized the importance of play to a child’s development.
"Developmental psychologists have described an identifiable sequence of play types from birth onwards, through which children learn by acquiring information and building competence. As outlined by Fernie…the process begins with what Piaget (1962) termed sensorimotor play, a mechanism for exploration of the physical self and the environment. Pretend play…enables children to experiment with symbolic representation and to explore social roles and relationships. These new abilities are internalized and used to gain further knowledge and skills. Through play, children learn about the physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social and moral domains of their world…As children mature, play becomes more organized to include rules and negotiation…As a result, children also learn about themselves and how to relate to other people, preparing them for independent life" (Boekhoven, 2009, p.4).
Boekhoven (2009, p.1), commented that in regard to adolescence "unstructured activities and time are more likely to be characterised by adults as a threat to adolescent health and well-being and as an antecedent of risk behaviours...At a time when young people are seeking opportunities to assert their independence, parents may seek to further organise their children’s free time as a way to protect them from negative influences and relationships". It is natural that as an adolescent part of finding your independence is through exploration and risk taking. If a parent isn’t allowing some room for them to do this then it can provide a reason to rebel and engage risky and potentially harmful behaviours e.g. trying drugs, smoking and alcohol. Even if they don’t rebel against their parents, they could conform to their parents wishes however it can take a negative toll on them mentally (e.g. unhappiness, stress, never taking the role of a leader).
It is important to let your adolescent have the room to explore on there own and make sure you are approachable so they can come to you for advice. Risk taking is part of life and a learnt experience is better than no experience. It important to let the adolescent take risks while you are still there to guide them. Boekhoven (2009, p.9) noted that "as parents face their children’s growing independence, research suggests that there is a need to take a hand in facilitating their child’s healthy lifestyle, appropriate social behaviour and engagement on the one hand, while stepping back to promote and support their child’s emerging self-reliance on the other…Herein lies the tension".
Some adolescents will require more support than others, some parents still needing to provide structured play (extra curricular activities), while others will need a chance to explore on their own (unstructured play). Boredom/unoccupied time is a key for concern during adolescence, again whilst some handle this well others don’t; especially in low socioeconomic areas.
"As children mature towards and through adolescence however, physical play activity as an element of recreational time typically declines…This shift holds the potential for unstructured time to become unoccupied time, or time in which risk behaviours can become an attractive option, without exposure to the beneficial effects that organized activities afford…these risks should not detract from the importance of providing children and youth with the opportunities to learn and explore that unstructured time affords" (Boekhoven, 2009, p.4).
Parental influences aren’t the only influences that have had an effect on how children play and what types of play they engage in. Changes in schooling promotes more time spent in the classroom learning, shorter breaks and time for play, as well as homework and involvement in extra circular activities (structured play). Gray (2011, p.447) supports this by stating a "decline in children’s play relates to increased time and weight given to schooling and to other adult-directed, school-like activities…Children now spend more time at school, and at school they spend less time playing, then was true in past times…The lengths of the school year and school day have increased; more young children attended academically oriented kindergartens and preschools than in times past; and recess time has shrunk and, in some school districts, disappeared completely".
Boekhoven comments on the decline in physical play and that "the underlying reasons for this transition centre around the increasing importance of peer relationships, so that social interaction becomes more concentrated on talk and shared confidences than on physical activity and play" (2009, p.8).
It is commonly noted that relationships become very important in adolescence and what was considered play (structured and unstructured) and now ‘recreational time’, a lot of which is spent and determined by peers. Technology has also had an influence on this are we are considered to be more connected than ever with the opportunities that technology provides.
"Adolescents appear to co-opt their use of internet communications to facilitate their need to talk and share experiences, possibly as a refuge from other aspects of their increasingly scheduled lives…the creation of a public persona may be one of the most compelling attractions for teens, in that they can test out nuances to their emerging sense of identity…Social network sites offer an alternative venue in which to communicate with friends and discuss daily hassles, away from parental observation and supervision that so often accompanies organized activities"(Boekhoven, 2009, p. 13).
Although technology has its benefits it also has its disadvantages, creating a new way of causing harm; for example cyber and text bullying, fraud, and predators. This poses a problem as parents need to allow their adolescent to have independence however also are generally responsible for protecting their adolescent from any harm technology can cause.
Fulwider, S., & Stevens, M. (2011, May 5). Physics of sports. In Exploring science wiki. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://exploringsciencewiki.wikidot.com/physics-of-sports
Children with disabilities: How this relates
Although I haven’t found much research on the effects of structured and unstructured play has on children with disabilities, the amount of play (both structured and unstructured) experienced certainly has an effect on possibly contributing to mental health illnesses. With a decline in play, this has also shown a decline in children’s/adolescents mental health.
"Many sources document this decline in mental health, but the most compelling evidence-because it is not confounded by changes in methods of assessment-comes from analyses of standardized assessment questionnaires that have been administered to normative or quasi-normative populations of young people in schools and colleges over the decades" (Gray, 2011, p. 447). Assessments conducted on young people collectively showed levels of anxiety and depression, as well as indications of other psychological disorders. This having increased and still increasing from the 1950’s. An increase in suicide rates in young people only reinforce the decline of mental health. These studies also noted that most young people felt they had a lack of control or a sense of lack of control over their life, which coincides with depression and anxiety.
Another steady increase that has occurred is that of narcissism. Being narcissistic are people who "tend to exploit others for personal gain, tend to value self-aggrandizement over cooperation, are more likely than others to commit white collar crimes, rank themselves unduly high in leadership abilities, and tend to lash out angrily in response to criticism" (Gray, 2011, p.451).
It hard to believe that there has been such an increase in narcissism considering the increase in anxiety and depression. Gray (2011, p. 451) comments that as "narcissism is sometimes charsterised as equivalent to high self esteem, but it is understood by clinicians to be a fragile and defensive variety of self-esteem...Narcissists commonly experience anxiety and depression when their experiences with reality run counter to their high values".
Overall it is important to have a balance of both structured and unstructured play to gain the benefits of both. It is evident that there still needs to be a lot more research done on how structured and unstructured play has an influence on child and adolescents health.
"Many sources document this decline in mental health, but the most compelling evidence-because it is not confounded by changes in methods of assessment-comes from analyses of standardized assessment questionnaires that have been administered to normative or quasi-normative populations of young people in schools and colleges over the decades" (Gray, 2011, p. 447). Assessments conducted on young people collectively showed levels of anxiety and depression, as well as indications of other psychological disorders. This having increased and still increasing from the 1950’s. An increase in suicide rates in young people only reinforce the decline of mental health. These studies also noted that most young people felt they had a lack of control or a sense of lack of control over their life, which coincides with depression and anxiety.
Another steady increase that has occurred is that of narcissism. Being narcissistic are people who "tend to exploit others for personal gain, tend to value self-aggrandizement over cooperation, are more likely than others to commit white collar crimes, rank themselves unduly high in leadership abilities, and tend to lash out angrily in response to criticism" (Gray, 2011, p.451).
It hard to believe that there has been such an increase in narcissism considering the increase in anxiety and depression. Gray (2011, p. 451) comments that as "narcissism is sometimes charsterised as equivalent to high self esteem, but it is understood by clinicians to be a fragile and defensive variety of self-esteem...Narcissists commonly experience anxiety and depression when their experiences with reality run counter to their high values".
Overall it is important to have a balance of both structured and unstructured play to gain the benefits of both. It is evident that there still needs to be a lot more research done on how structured and unstructured play has an influence on child and adolescents health.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION...
ADHD:
Another point to be noted over my research was the increased outdoor play aided youth with ADHD. Boekhoven (2009, p. 6) commented that "play in a natural setting, compared with a traditional style of playground play, was found to improve balance and co-ordination.... and exposure to natural settings through ordinary after-school and weekend activities has been reported to reduce the manifestations of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder".
Another point to be noted over my research was the increased outdoor play aided youth with ADHD. Boekhoven (2009, p. 6) commented that "play in a natural setting, compared with a traditional style of playground play, was found to improve balance and co-ordination.... and exposure to natural settings through ordinary after-school and weekend activities has been reported to reduce the manifestations of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder".
Occupational therapy: How this relates to structured and unstructured play
Through out this blog the importance of equilibrium of both structured and unstructured play is desired to provide an optimal amount of both benefits that can positively contribute to a child’s development. From an occupational therapist perspective there are a number of ways to achieve this for example:
1. Facilitate opportunities for children to achieve a balance of structured and unstructured play, and remove or overcome barriers.
2.Education to others (e.g. parents/care givers or teachers and teacher aids), of the importance, advantages/disadvantages and potential impacts of structured and unstructured play.
3.Apply more of a non-directive play therapy approach, maintaining client centeredness by working on interests to increase motivation and participation.
1. Facilitate opportunities for children to achieve a balance of structured and unstructured play, and remove or overcome barriers.
2.Education to others (e.g. parents/care givers or teachers and teacher aids), of the importance, advantages/disadvantages and potential impacts of structured and unstructured play.
3.Apply more of a non-directive play therapy approach, maintaining client centeredness by working on interests to increase motivation and participation.
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